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In 2014 Ukraine faced the greatest threat to its national security since the collapse of the Soviet Union, of which it had been part for most of the 20th century. Months of popular protest swept pro-Russian Pres. Viktor Yanukovych from office in February, and he was replaced by a pro-Western interim government. As the interim government attempted to deal with a reeling economy, heavily armed pro-Russian separatists seized government buildings in Crimea and, with the support of Russian troops, declared independence from the central government in Kiev. Russia formally annexed Crimea in March 2014, a move that was broadly criticized in the West as a gross violation of international law, and separatist activities spread into eastern Ukraine. Ukrainian security services initially were unable to resist the attacks, which were often conducted by soldiers bearing Russian arms and equipment but wearing uniforms that lacked any clear insignia. With tens of thousands of Russian troops massed just across the border and the memory of the 2008 conflict between Russia and Georgia fresh in their minds, leaders in Kiev were forced to weigh any possible military response against the likelihood of triggering overt Russian intervention. As Ukrainian forces began systematically reclaiming contested territory ahead of the May 2014 presidential elections, the United States and the European Union (EU) expanded economic sanctions against an increasingly wide circle of Russian companies and individuals. In this special feature, Britannica offers a guide to recent events in Ukraine and explores the historical and geographic context of the crisis.

Ukraines postindependence history can be largely characterized as a balancing act between the countrys European aspirations and its historic, ethnic, and economic ties to Russia. Leonid Kravchuk, a longtime Communist Party official who served as independent Ukraines first president (199194), adopted a pro-Western foreign policy and dictated the fledgling states terms in its often acrimonious divorce negotiations with Russia. His bid for a second term failed when he was defeated in the 1994 presidential elections by Leonid Kuchma, who sought to improve relations with Russia and spur economic growth through increased privatization of state industries. Kuchma led the country for more than a decade, overseeing a period of economic stabilization as well as increased ties with Europe. However, allegations of corruption, along with the emergence of a vocal opposition under Viktor Yushchenko, Kuchmas former prime minister and the architect of many of the countrys economic reforms, would ultimately lead to Kuchmas political downfall.

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Russia: The Ukraine crisis

Putin also took an active role in the events in neighbouring Ukraine, where a protest movement toppled the government of pro-Russian Pres....

Kuchma, with his popularity plummeting, did not stand for reelection in 2004. Instead, he endorsed Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovych, a native of eastern Ukraines Donets Basin who drew much of his support from that regions ethnic Russian population. During the campaign, Yushchenko became seriously ill when he was poisoned with dioxinan apparent assassination attempt that left his face disfigured. Yushchenko and Yanukovych were the top finishers in the first round of balloting and proceeded to a second round. Yanukovych was declared the winner in the runoff election, but international observers noted widespread irregularities, and Yushchenko supporters launched a mass protest movement that came to be known as the Orange Revolution. Meanwhile, Yanukovych supporters vowed to secede if the election results were overturned. The Ukrainian Supreme Court responded by ordering that the second round be rerun, and Yushchenko emerged victorious. His presidency was rife with turmoil, however. Fuel shortages, dissent within his party, and parliamentary struggles with Yanukovych undermined Yushchenkos ability to enact reform, and he was soon eclipsed by fellow Orange Revolution leader Yuliya Tymoshenko.

Tymoshenko, who had served as prime minister in 2005 and from 2007 to 2010, challenged Yushchenko for the presidency in 2010. She advanced to the second round of balloting but lost to Yanukovych in an election that was deemed free and fair by observers. As president, Yanukovych immediately moved to strengthen ties with Russia, extending Russias lease on port facilities in the Crimean city of Sevastopol and signing legislation that indefinitely halted Ukraines progress toward NATO membership. He also took steps to neutralize his opponents with prosecutions that critics characterized as selective and politically motivated. In 2011 Tymoshenko was charged with abuse of power and sentenced to seven years in prison. The following year, her political ally, Yuri Lutsenko, was imprisoned on similar charges. In what was widely seen as a concession to Western pressure, Yanukovych released Lutsenko in April 2013, but that perceived pivot to the West would not last.

Viktor Yanukovych upon his inauguration as president of Ukraine, February 25, 2010.

Mass protests erupted in November 2013 when Yanukovych announced that he would not proceed with long-anticipated association and trade agreements with the European Union (EU). After meeting with Russian Pres. Vladimir Putin on November 9, Yanukovych instead moved to further expand ties with Russia. Hundreds of thousands took to the streets in response, and demonstrators established a protest camp in Kievs Maidan (Independence Square). Opposition politicians voiced their support for the protesters, while Moscow backed the Yanukovych administration with promises of low-interest loans and reductions in the price of natural gas. Over the following months a series of government crackdowns were unsuccessful in suppressing dissent, and in February 2014 Ukrainian security forces opened fire on the Maidan protesters, killing scores and wounding hundreds. With his political base disintegrating, Yanukovych released Tymoshenko, scheduled snap presidential elections to occur in May 2014, and ultimately fled the country ahead of an impeachment vote and a raft of criminal charges.

Additional information on Ukraine can be found in the following articles:

Opposition groups call for Kuchmas resignation after audio tapes surface that implicate him in the politically motivated killing of Gongadze. A parliamentary commission reveals that the tapes also contain evidence that Kuchma approved a $100 million arms deal with Iraq in contravention of a 1990 UN Security Council resolution.

The Ukrainian political landscape is reshaped when Yanukovychs Party of Regions captures the largest share of votes in parliamentary elections in March. Unable to agree on a coalition with Tymoshenko despite protracted negotiations, Yushchenko is forced to form a unity government with Yanukovych as prime minister.

The power struggle between Yushchenko and Yanukovych results in the dismissal of parliament and the scheduling of snap elections, held in September. Although the Party of Regions remains the largest single group in parliament, the real winner is Tymoshenko, who emerges as the most-recognizable political figure in Ukraine. With the Bloc of Yulia Tymoshenko (BYT) providing most of its parliamentary strength, the Orange coalition reforms, and Tymoshenko is named prime minister in December.

Days before the Vilnius summit, Yanukovych announces that Ukraine will suspend talks with the EU in favour of strengthening its relationship with Russia. Mass protests erupt in major cities across Ukraine over subsequent days, with an estimated 100,000 people gathering in central Kiev. Observers characterize the demonstrations as the largest in Ukraine since the Orange Revolution.

The Ukrainian parliament passes a harsh anti-protest bill by an informal show of hands rather than by employing its usual electronic voting system. Yanukovych signs the bill into law, triggering a fiery response from the opposition.

More than 20 people are killed and hundreds are wounded as clashes between police and demonstrators in Kiev become increasingly violent. An estimated 25,000 protesters occupy a fortified camp in Kievs Maidan.

With his political support crumbling, Yanukovych accepts an EU-brokered deal that promises early elections and the implementation of a unity government that is to include members of the opposition. Parliament decriminalizes the statute under which Tymoshenko had been prosecuted, thus paving the way for her release.

Yanukovych vanishes as parliament votes to strip him of his presidential powers. Tymoshenko is freed from prison, and she immediately travels to Kiev, where she makes an impassioned speech to the crowd in the Maidan. Yanukovych, appearing in a television address, denounces his removal from office as a coup.

With Russian troops and affiliated paramilitary units in de facto control of the peninsula, Crimeas self-appointed parliament votes to secede from Ukraine and seek annexation by Russia. A regional referendum on the matter is scheduled for March 16.

Despite observers noting irregularities in the electoral processsuch as the presence of armed men at polling placesCrimean officials declare that turnout has topped 80 percent, with more than 95 percent of voters declaring a wish to join Russia. Putin states that he will respect the wishes of the Crimean people, while the interim government in Kiev and Western leaders decry the election as illegal.

Putin signs a treaty with Crimean officials that incorporates Crimea into the Russian Federation. Ukraine prepares for the evacuation of an estimated 25,000 Ukrainian military personnel and their dependents from the peninsula.

With the approval of the Russian parliament, Putin signs a law that formally annexes Crimea. The move is not recognized by Western governments, and a flurry of sanctions are imposed on Russian and Crimean officials by the United States and the EU. Yatsenyuk signs a portion of the EU association treaty that was rejected by Yanukovych in November 2013.

Russia abrogates its lease on the port at Sevastopol, arguing that it is no longer valid, as the city is now part of Russian territory. The price of Russian natural gas, discounted while the agreement was in effect, subsequently skyrockets in Ukraine.

In a virtual replay of the events in Crimea, highly disciplined pro-Russian gunmen carrying Russian equipment and wearing uniforms without insignia execute armed takeovers of government buildings across eastern Ukraine. Pro-Russian separatists in Donetsk and Luhansk proclaim their independence and announce that referenda on the matter will be held on May 11.

Putin calls for the scheduled referenda in Donetsk and Luhansk to be postponed. The Council for Civil Society and Human Rights, an official advisory body to the Kremlin, issues a report that contradicts the published results of the Crimean independence referendum. According to their revised numbers, turnout was estimated to have been between 30 and 50 percent, with just over half of the voters opting for Russian annexation.

Separatists in Donetsk and Luhansk proceed with their referenda and declare independence from Ukraine, despite apparent widespread irregularities in the voting process. The interim government in Kiev characterizes the event as a farce.

Poroshenko is sworn in as president of Ukraine. In his inaugural address, he states that his government will not negotiate with armed militants and reiterates the claim that Crimea is Ukrainian territory.

After fierce fighting, Ukrainian forces retake Mariupol. Although Russia continues to deny involvement in the separatist movement, three Soviet-era T-64 tanks stripped of insignia are photographed in Ukrainian cities near the Russian border.

Poroshenko declares a weeklong cease-fire as part of a broader peace proposal to pro-Russian separatists. The United States levels a new round of economic sanctions against pro-Russian leaders in eastern Ukraine. Three days later, separatists agree to observe the truce.

Rebels shoot down a Ukrainian military helicopter outside Slovyansk, killing nine, in violation of the tenuous cease-fire.

Hear the Dutch Safety Board's investigation about the shooting down of Malaysia Airlines flight MH17 on July 17, 2014

A video released by the Dutch Safety Board in October 2015 summarizing the board's investigation of the shooting down of Malaysia Airlines flight MH17 on July 17, 2014.

Two Ukrainian Su-25 fighter-bombers are shot down over rebel-held territory some 25 miles (40 km) from the MH17 crash site. Separatist forces claim that the jets were downed at low altitude by shoulder-fired missiles, whereas a Ukrainian national security spokesperson states that the aircraft were flying at an altitude of more than 17,000 feet (5,200 metres) when they were hit by missiles fired from inside Russian territory. Russian authorities deny any involvement in the downing of the two planes.

Svoboda and UDAR withdraw their support from the ruling coalition government, and Ukrainian Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk resigns, citing frustration at the pace of passage of legislation governing defense spending.

The U.S. and the EU impose a coordinated round of sanctions against Russia, citing Moscows continued support of pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine. The restrictionswhich include an arms embargo, the closure of American and European capital markets to a number of state-owned Russian banks, and an export ban on energy-sector technologyrepresent the strongest measures taken by Western governments since the beginning of the crisis. Russian officials criticize the move as shortsighted and vow that the sanctions will only strengthen the Russian economy in the long term.

Ukrainian military forces, which have made renewed progress against rebel forces since late July, surround the separatist stronghold of Donetsk. With conditions in rebel-held cities worsening as a result of fighting and the interruption of basic services, separatist commanders propose a cease-fire. The Ukrainian government restates its position that such an agreement can come only with the surrender and disarming of the separatists.

As Ukrainian armed forces continue their advance, separatists announce the resignation of commander Igor Girkin (also known by the nom de guerre Strelkov). Believed by EU authorities to be a Russian military intelligence officer, Girkin has been one of the most-visible faces in the rebel leadership structure. Valery Bolotov, leader of the self-proclaimed Luhansk Peoples Republic, also announces that he is stepping down. Combined with the resignation of Borodai the previous week, this represents a complete overhaul in the top ranks of the rebel leadership.

Ukrainian armed forces report the destruction of part of an armoured column that entered Ukrainian territory from Russia. The Russian government decries the claim as some kind of fantasy. This announcement comes one day after Western journalists photographed a convoy of armoured personnel carriers crossing into Ukraine from Russia.

Aleksandr Zakharchenko, the new leader of the self-proclaimed Donestk Peoples Republic, announces that he has received substantial reinforcements from Russia, including dozens of tanks and 1,200 Russian-trained troops. Russia continues to deny that it is supporting the rebels.

Poroshenko dissolves parliament and calls for snap elections to be held on October 26, 2014. Moscow announces plans for a second humanitarian aid convoy to be dispatched to rebel-held territory in eastern Ukraine. Ukrainian authorities report a clash between border guards and a column of Russian armoured vehicles near Novoazovsk. The city, which is a short distance from the Russian border and well outside the existing area of separatist control, is just 25 miles from Mariupol.

The Ukrainian military announces that 10 Russian paratroopers have been captured near the town of Dzerkalne, roughly 12 miles (20 km) from the Ukrainian-Russian border. For the first time since the start of hostilities, Russian military officials concede that Russian troops crossed into Ukraine, but they insist that the incursion was accidental. Poroshenko and Putin meet privately during a trade summit in Minsk, Belarus, to discuss border control issues and the cessation of hostilities in eastern Ukraine.

Poroshenko declares that Russian forces have entered Ukraine and convenes an emergency session of his security council. NATO estimates that more than 1,000 Russian troops are operating inside Ukraine, and intelligence analysts identify tanks in the separatist arsenal that could only have been obtained from Russia. Rebel forces take control of Novoazovsk, and civilians flee Mariupol as the Ukrainian military bolsters its defenses there. Russia restates its claim that it has no role in the conflict.

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