Discrimination in the Formation of Academic Networks at #EconTwitter – ProMarket
In a field experiment conducted with economists on Twitter, the authors find that users who are identifiable as white, women, and PhD students affiliated with top-ten universities are more likely to receive follow-backs.
Professional networks are important determinants of labor market outcomes, especially in academia, where collaboration is critical. Nevertheless, individuals access to formal and informal academic networks is far from homogeneous. This heterogeneity may exist for several reasons, but a plausible cause is discrimination: do individuals with specific group-based characteristics such as gender, race, or university affiliation have lower access to networks due to discrimination based on these characteristics?
To test this hypothesis, we conducted a randomized experiment on Twitter, a social media platform widely used by academics to develop their professional networks. We created human-like fictional accounts that claimed to be PhD students in economics at universities in the U.S. The accounts were identical to each other apart from their perceived gender (male or female), race (Black or white), and university affiliation (one of the top-ten U.S. universities or a relatively lower-ranked university listed between 79-100, according to the 2017 U.S. News & World Report).
The experimental accounts randomly followed Twitter profiles of various economists from around the world. The subjects in our experiment are people who used the #EconTwitter in posts in January and February 2022.
Interestingly, we can use public information from Twitter to predict some of those users characteristics, such as their gender, race, and university affiliation. Even in the observational data from this sample, we find some disparities in the number of followers between different groups of economists, particularly in terms of the economists race and university affiliation. This is illustrated in Figure 1, which shows our subjects log number of followers according to their predicted gender, race, and university ranking (conditional on the subject being an academic economist). In the observational data, the gender of the economist has no impact on the number of their followers. However, the distribution of followers for white economists is shifted to the right relative to the distribution among non-white economists, suggesting the median white economist has more followers than the median non-white economist. Top-ranked university economists similarly have more followers than economists from lower-ranked institutions. However, many factors may explain the differences (or lack thereof) in the number of followers between these groups, such that these results alone are not evidence of discrimination. For example, publication records or the frequency of posts on the platform could correlate with the racial identity or university affiliation of economists who use Twitter, so that race or university affiliation do not themselves explain differences in the number of followers. Our experiment allows us to identify whether discrimination exists in these dimensions (and in which direction) since the accounts created are identical in all dimensions except those we study.
Figure 1: Distribution of followers on #EconTwitter
For the core experiment of our study, we created 80 fictitious accounts and followed about 8,000 economists on Twitter. Figure 2 gives examples of our experimental accounts: the profile picture (an artificially generated image) signals gender and race, while the profiles description signals university affiliation. Names, both first and last, were selected from a list of common names according to the 2000 U.S. census. Names that indicated a specific ethnic minority group were removed from possible use. The experimental accounts randomly followed profiles of various economists. Then, after a few days, we measured the proportion of economists who reciprocally followed them back. By comparing the follow-back rate for each type of account, we could identify the existence (or not) of discrimination, since our accounts were identical except for the characteristics we manipulated.
Follow-backs are an interesting outcome in our setting because having many followers is essential to benefit from Twitter. The more followers an account has, the greater its potential impact and reach on this social network. Moreover, following an account back is a relatively low-cost action, suggesting that the disparities we find could be even larger in other (costlier) situations.
Figure 2: Sample experimental accounts
Overall, the follow-back rate varies substantially depending on the characteristics of the experimental accounts, as shown in Figure 3. For example, comparing the most extreme cases, we document that white women studying at prestigious universities were followed back in 23.9% of cases. In comparison, Black men from relatively less prestigious universities were followed back in only 14.4% of cases, a difference of over 65%. Strikingly, we also find that Black male students from top-ranked universities fare no better than white male students from lower-ranked institutions.
Figure 3: Follow-back rate by bot group
Figure 4 displays the main results of the experiment, comparing the marginal follow-back rate for each dimension we experimentally manipulated. Black students had a 10% less chance of receiving follow-backs than white students, while students who claimed to be studying at top-10 U.S. universities received almost 22% more follow-backs than their relatively lower-ranked counterparts. In addition, women had 25% more follow-backs than men.
Figure 4: Follow-back rates by bot group, marginal distributions
The differences found are substantial and statistically significant at conventional levels. They quantitatively demonstrate disparities in access to academic networks among members of these different groups, which can contribute to the lack of diversity in the profession. The race and university affiliation results are consistent with economists perceptions and evidence of disparities in these dimensions.
However, the result for gendersubjects were more likely to follow back female than male accountsruns counter to the overwhelming evidence, both within economics and in other contexts, of discrimination against women. We note that different mechanisms may be at play to explain this result. Some users, conscious of the barriers women face in the profession, could be attempting to engage more with women to correct those barriers. It is also possible that some subjects were using Twitter to establish social rather than professional connections and disproportionately wished to establish such connections with women. These two motives might have different implications regarding the consequences of having more Twitter followers on womens professional outcomes. While we cannot elicit the motivation behind each follow-back, considering how this effect varies by different subgroups of subjects may provide us some hints about this behavior (e.g., male subjects follow back female bots at a higher rate than female subjects).
Overall, by documenting that discrimination is indeed present in the context of the formation of academic networks, we aim to contribute to the debate about the lack of diversity in academia. Nevertheless, much more research on the topic is needed to understand, for instance, the motivation behind follows and how discrimination occurs in different stages of professional interactions. Still, our results indicate that, even on a platform regarded as democratic and egalitarian, different groups face different barriers to networking, which may reduce the potential benefit these groups obtain from the social media presence.
Articles represent the opinions of their writers, not necessarily those of the University of Chicago, the Booth School of Business, or its faculty.
Read more:
Discrimination in the Formation of Academic Networks at #EconTwitter - ProMarket
- Mark Zuckerberg Says Social Media Is Over - The New Yorker - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Prince Harry and Meghan Markle are 'grateful' that Prince Archie and Princess Lilibet are too young for social media - Business Insider - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Morgan Stanley believed Google would rival Facebook if the search giant could beat Mark Zuckerberg to scooping up WhatsApp - Fortune - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Australian leaders vow to stand firm on social media age limits as election nears - Reuters - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- My Company Competed Against Facebook. Here's What Happened | Opinion - Newsweek - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Layboard Launches Innovative Social Network for Job Searching and Career Growth - Reuters - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Abrego Garcia family flees to safe house after Trump DHS posts home address on social media - The Real News Network - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Opinion: Morning routines are a myth and serve as social media gimmicks - lsureveille.com - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Gen Zs Underground Social Network Just Went National And Its Blowing Up - Forbes - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- Fans React to Jameson Williams Not Following Lions on Social Media - Sports Illustrated - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- OpenAI may be creating a new social media platform with AI-generated images - Tech Edition - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- B3 partner with Reach Labs to launch user acquisition platform and GameChain - VentureBeat - April 25th, 2025 [April 25th, 2025]
- OpenAIs Reportedly Exploring Its Own AI-Based Social Network - Social Media Today - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI launches its Social Network: the new frontier of the data war - The Cryptonomist - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI is reportedly developing its own X-like social media platform - TechCrunch - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- What Meta stands to lose if the FTC wins - Quartz - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- Instagram and Facebook are hardly social media apps anymore. Here's the proof. - Business Insider - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- FTC Antitrust Case Against Meta Heads to Trial This Week - Social Media Today - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI might be building its own social network, and we really hope they don't - TechRadar - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI Takes On Elon Musk By Creating Its Own Social Network! - Cointribune - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI is building its own social network to rival Elon Musk's X - Crypto Briefing - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI reportedly creating its own social network to take on X - Tom's Guide - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- Behind the landmark trial that could reshape Metas future with Instagram - Los Angeles Times - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI is quietly working on a social network similar to Twitter, powered by ChatGPT - TechSpot - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI Reportedly Developing Social Media Platform Amid Ongoing Feud Between Musk, Altman - BW Businessworld - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI braced to challenge Elon Musks X with new social network - The Times - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- Meta faces antitrust claims at trial over Instagram and WhatsApp ownership - The Guardian - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- Like Musk, but with ChatGPT: OpenAI is working on its own social network similar to X - ITC.ua - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI may be turning ChatGPT into a social media platform - Android Authority - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- Creative ChatGPT They are planning their own social network and it will be quite unique! LSA Magazine - Letem svtem Applem - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- OpenAI is working on X-like social media network, the Verge reports - MarketScreener - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- Will Meta be forced to sell Instagram and WhatsApp in FTC trial? - Bizcommunity - April 16th, 2025 [April 16th, 2025]
- Body talk on social networking sites and appearance anxiety among college students: the mediating role of self-objectification and moderating role of... - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- I Tried Seven39, the Social Network That's Only Open Three Hours a Day - Lifehacker - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- Mapping ISKPs Strength: Social Network Analysis of Tech-Driven Jihad - Global Network on Extremism and Technology - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- ION and HyperGPT Unite to Power AI-Driven Web3 Social Networks - CoinTrust - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- College Student Shares Why She Deleted All Socials and What Life Is Like Without It - The Flagler College Gargoyle - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- CRD is shutting down its X account, saying platform 'rife with misinformation' - Times Colonist - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- Social Network: Is the mental health of teenagers in danger? - evidencenetwork.ca - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- Leo, Daily Horoscope Today, April 10, 2025: Business owners will find success through social networking - Times of India - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- Daily time spent on social networking by internet users - the-star.co.ke - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- Young people and the pressure to be perfect like on social media - baohaiduong.vn - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- CSC urged to recall memo on social media use of gov't personnel - GMA Network - April 10th, 2025 [April 10th, 2025]
- Woman charged for hit-and-run death allegedly posted about victim on social media after the crash - KBTX News 3 - April 8th, 2025 [April 8th, 2025]
- LinkedIn reveals best places to work - 9Now - April 8th, 2025 [April 8th, 2025]
- Chamber showcase fills Union Station with real-life social networking for small biz owners - Startland News - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Beyond Bluesky: These are the apps building social experiences on the AT Protocol - TechCrunch - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Modeling the amplification of epidemic spread by individuals exposed to misinformation on social media - Nature - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Gen Z is flocking to the one social media platform millennials didn't ruin - Business Insider - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Whistlr Network: The Real-Time, Unfiltered Social Media, That - openPR.com - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- EU may make an example of X by issuing $1 billion fine to Musks social network - Ars Technica - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Mark Zuckerberg Apparently Bought Jesse Eisenberg's "The Social Network" T-Shirt, And I'm A Little Weirded Out - BuzzFeed - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Is X Going To Pay The Price? Europe Is Preparing Historic Sanctions Against Elon Musk. - Cointribune - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Truth Social owner Trump Media becomes first company listed on NYSE Texas handing early win to exchange - New York Post - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Mark Zuckerberg wears iconic t-shirt from The Social Network, reveals he got it in auction - Mint - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Immigration officials look to collect social media handles from those seeking benefits. Is this new? - The Tribune-Democrat - April 5th, 2025 [April 5th, 2025]
- Cryptocurrency and Extremism: How Social Network Analysis is Used to Track Extremist Cryptocurrency Donations - GNET - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- New bill would require warning labels on social media platforms - KSTP - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- Japan Grapples with Risks of Social Media in Pursuing Options for Protecting Children Online - Nippon.com - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- Gabe Newell had his eyes on a social network in the '90s that 'was not in a games context at all'meaning Valve-owned social media could've been a very... - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- Tired of traditional social media? Here are 4 reasons why Substack is my go-to social media app - ZDNet - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- Skip the post-trip laundry stress with the new features of Wingle, a free in-flight networking app for travellers - indulgexpress - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- Social media's impact: Driving business strategies from marketing to ROI - ZAWYA - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- What Is Meta AI? Everything You Should Know About the Social Network Giant's AI Tools - CNET - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- The art and science of going viral in 2025 - Computerworld - March 25th, 2025 [March 25th, 2025]
- Agility in Marketing Teams: An Analysis of Factors Influencing the Entry Decision Into a Trendy Social Network | Newswise - Newswise - March 18th, 2025 [March 18th, 2025]
- The Rise and Fall of Terrorgram: Inside a Global Online Hate Network - ProPublica - March 18th, 2025 [March 18th, 2025]
- Why TikTok Should Be OnChain - CoinDesk - March 18th, 2025 [March 18th, 2025]
- China: Officials aim to restrict social media and screen time, youth left in divide - The Hawk - March 18th, 2025 [March 18th, 2025]
- Florida teen killed after being lured on social media to meet man, police say - USA TODAY - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- Abused F1 legend quit threat revealed after social media abuse - Planet F1 - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- A Long-Shot Bet to Bypass the Middlemen of Social Media - The New York Times - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- Trying the buzzy social media platform Yope showed me how hard it is to get people to download another app - Yahoo - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- Can Australia really ban children from social media? - The Times - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- St. Johns County deputy on administrative leave after disturbing social media comment sparks internal investigation - WJXT News4JAX - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- Threads tests adding interests on profiles to connect users with topical discussions - TechCrunch - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- The effects of social media abstinence on affective well-being and life satisfaction: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Scientific Reports -... - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- Apple Photos: The Social Network We Didn't Realize We Already Had - Fernandina Observer - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- One-legged Pants Are The Latest Fashion Trend Sweeping Social Media - The Project - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]
- Kartik Aaryan turns brand ambassador for O Hi; to redefine social networking with real-world connections - Bollywood Hungama - March 9th, 2025 [March 9th, 2025]