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More than 50 years ago, a fundamental scientific revolution occurred, sparked by the concurrent emergence of a huge amount of new data on seafloor bathymetry and profound intellectual insights from researchers rethinking conventional wisdom. Data and insight combined to produce the paradigm of plate tectonics. Similarly, in the coming decade, a new revolution in data analytics may rapidly overhaul how we derive knowledge from data in the geosciences. Two interrelated elements will be central in this process: artificial intelligence (AI, including machine learning methods as a subset) and high-performance computing (HPC).

Already today, geoscientists must understand modern tools of data analytics and the hardware on which they work. Now AI and HPC, along with cloud computing and interactive programming languages, are becoming essential tools for geoscientists. Here we discuss the current state of AI and HPC in Earth science and anticipate future trends that will shape applications of these developing technologies in the field. We also propose that it is time to rethink graduate and professional education to account for and capitalize on these quickly emerging tools.

Great strides in AI capabilities, including speech and facial recognition, have been made over the past decade, but the origins of these capabilities date back much further. In 1971, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency substantially funded a project calledSpeech Understanding Research, and it was generally believed at the time that artificial speech recognition was just around the corner. We know now that this was not the case, as todays speech and writing recognition capabilities emerged only as a result of both vastly increased computing power and conceptual breakthroughs such as the use of multilayered neural networks, which mimic the biological structure of the brain.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and many other artificial computing tools are still in their infancy, which has important implications for high-performance computing (HPC) in the geosciences.Recently, AI has gained the ability to create images of artificial faces that humans cannot distinguish from real ones by using generative adversarial networks (GANs). These networks combine two neural networks, one that produces a model and a second one that tries to discriminate the generated model from the real one. Scientists have now started to use GANs to generate artificial geoscientific data sets.

These and other advances are striking, yet AI and many other artificial computing tools are still in their infancy. We cannot predict what AI will be able to do 2030 years from now, but a survey of existing AI applications recently showed that computing power is the key when targeting practical applications today. The fact that AI is still in its early stages has important implications for HPC in the geosciences. Currently, geoscientific HPC studies have been dominated by large-scale time-dependent numerical simulations that use physical observations to generate models [Morra et al, 2021a]. In the future, however, we may work in the other directionEarth, ocean, and atmospheric simulations may feed large AI systems that in turn produce artificial data sets that allow geoscientific investigations, such as Destination Earth, for which collected data are insufficient.

Development of AI capabilities is well underway in certain geoscience disciplines. For a decade now [Ma et al., 2019], remote sensing operations have been using convolutional neural networks (CNNs), a kind of neural network that adaptively learns which features to look at in a data set. In seismology (Figure 1), pattern recognition is the most common application of machine learning (ML), and recently, CNNs have been trained to find patterns in seismic data [Kong et al., 2019], leading to discoveries such as previously unrecognized seismic events [Bergen et al., 2019].

New AI applications and technologies are also emerging; these involve, for example, the self-ordering of seismic waveforms to detect structural anomalies in the deep mantle [Kim et al., 2020]. Recently, deep generative models, which are based on neural networks, have shown impressive capabilities in modeling complex natural signals, with the most promising applications in autoencoders and GANs (e.g., for generating images from data).

CNNs are a form of supervised machine learning (SML), meaning that before they are applied for their intended use, they are first trained to find prespecified patterns in labeled data sets and to check their accuracy against an answer key. Training a neural network using SML requires large, well-labeled data sets as well as massive computing power. Massive computing power, in turn, requires massive amounts of electricity, such that the energy demand of modern AI models is doubling every 3.4 months and causing a large and growing carbon footprint.

AI is starting to improve the efficiency of geophysical sensors: Some sensors use AI to detect when interesting data are recorded, and these data are selectively stored.In the future, the trend in geoscientific applications of AI might shift from using bigger CNNs to using more scalable algorithms that can improve performance with less training data and fewer computing resources. Alternative strategies will likely involve less energy-intensive neural networks, such as spiking neural networks, which reduce data inputs by analyzing discrete events rather than continuous data streams.

Unsupervised ML (UML), in which an algorithm identifies patterns on its own rather than searching for a user-specified pattern, is another alternative to data-hungry SML. One type of UML identifies unique features in a data set to allow users to discover anomalies of interest (e.g., evidence of hidden geothermal resources in seismic data) and to distinguish trends of interest (e.g., rapidly versus slowly declining production from oil and gas wells based on production rate transients) [Vesselinov et al., 2019].

AI is also starting to improve the efficiency of geophysical sensors. Data storage limitations require instruments such as seismic stations, acoustic sensors, infrared cameras, and remote sensors to record and save data sets that are much smaller than the total amount of data they measure. Some sensors use AI to detect when interesting data are recorded, and these data are selectively stored. Sensor-based AI algorithms also help minimize energy consumption by and prolong the life of sensors located in remote regions, which are difficult to service and often powered by a single solar panel. These techniques include quantized CNN (using 8-bit variables) running on minimal hardware, such as Raspberry Pi [Wilkes et al., 2017].

Powerful, efficient algorithms and software represent only one part of the data revolution; the hardware and networks that we use to process and store data have evolved significantly as well.

Since about 2004, when the increase in frequencies at which processors operate stalled at about 3 gigahertz (the end of Moores law), computing power has been augmented by increasing the number of cores per CPU and by the parallel work of cores in multiple CPUs, as in computing clusters.

Accelerators such as graphics processing units (GPUs), once used mostly for video games, are now routinely used for AI applications and are at the heart of all major ML facilities (as well the U.S. Exascale Strategy, a part of the National Strategic Computing Initiative). For example, Summit and Sierra, the two fastest supercomputers in the United States, are based on a hierarchical CPU-GPU architecture. Meanwhile, emerging tensor processing units, which were developed specifically for matrix-based operations, excel at the most demanding tasks of most neural network algorithms. In the future, computers will likely become increasingly heterogeneous, with a single system combining several types of processors, including specialized ML coprocessors (e.g., Cerebras) and quantum computing processors.

Computational systems that are physically distributed across remote locations and used on demand, usually called cloud computing, are also becoming more common, although these systems impose limitations on the code that can be run on them. For example, cloud infrastructures, in contrast to centralized HPC clusters and supercomputers, are not designed for performing large-scale parallel simulations. Cloud infrastructures face limitations on high-throughput interconnectivity, and the synchronization needed to help multiple computing nodes coordinate tasks is substantially more difficult to achieve for physically remote clusters. Although several cloud-based computing providers are now investing in high-throughput interconnectivity, the problem of synchronization will likely remain for the foreseeable future.

AI has proven invaluable in discovering and analyzing patterns in large, real-world data sets. It could also become a source of realistic artificial data sets.Artificial intelligence has proven invaluable in discovering and analyzing patterns in large, real-world data sets. It could also become a source of realistic artificial data sets, generated through models and simulations. Artificial data sets enable geophysicists to examine problems that are unwieldy or intractable using real-world databecause these data may be too costly or technically demanding to obtainand to explore what-if scenarios or interconnected physical phenomena in isolation. For example, simulations could generate artificial data to help study seismic wave propagation; large-scale geodynamics; or flows of water, oil, and carbon dioxide through rock formations to assist in energy extraction and storage.

HPC and cloud computing will help produce and run 3D models, not only assisting in improved visualization of natural processes but also allowing for investigation of processes that cant be adequately studied with 2D modeling. In geodynamics, for example, using 2D modeling makes it difficult to calculate 3D phenomena like toroidal flow and vorticity because flow patterns are radically different in 3D. Meanwhile, phenomena like crustal porosity waves (waves of high porosity in rocks; Figure 2) and corridors of fast-moving ice in glaciers require extremely high spatial and temporal resolutions in 3D to capture [Rss et al., 2020].

Fig. 2. A 3D modeling run with 16 billion degrees of freedom simulates flow focusing in porous media and identifies a pulsed behavior phenomenon called porosity waves. Credit: Rss et al. [2018], CC BY 4.0Adding an additional dimension to a model can require a significant increase in the amount of data processed. For example, in exploration seismology, going from a 2D to a 3D simulation involves a transition from requiring three-dimensional data (i.e., source, receiver, time) to five-dimensional data (source x, source y, receiver x, receiver y, and time [e.g., Witte et al., 2020]). AI can help with this transition. At the global scale, for example, the assimilation of 3D simulations in iterative full-waveform inversions for seismic imaging was performed recently with limited real-world data sets, employing AI techniques to maximize the amount of information extracted from seismic traces while maintaining the high quality of the data [Lei et al., 2020].

Interactive programming and language-agnostic programming environments are young techniques that will facilitate introducing computing to geoscientists.As far as weve come in developing AI for uses in geoscientific research, there is plenty of room for growth in the algorithms and computing infrastructure already mentioned, as well as in other developing technologies. For example, interactive programming, in which the programmer develops new code while a program is active, and language-agnostic programming environments that can run code in a variety of languages are young techniques that will facilitate introducing computing to geoscientists.

Programming languages, such as Python and Julia, which are now being taught to Earth science students, will accompany the transition to these new methods and will be used in interactive environments such as the Jupyter Notebook. Julia was shown recently to perform well as compiled code for machine learning algorithms in its most recent implementations, such as the ones using differentiable programming, which reduces computational resource and energy requirements.

Quantum computing, which uses the quantum states of atoms rather than streams of electrons to transmit data, is another promising development that is still in its infancy but that may lead to the next major scientific revolution. It is forecast that by the end of this decade, quantum computers will be applied in solving many scientific problems, including those related to wave propagation, crustal stresses, atmospheric simulations, and other topics in the geosciences. With competition from China in developing quantum technologies and AI, quantum computing and quantum information applications may become darlings of major funding opportunities, offering the means for ambitious geophysicists to pursue fundamental research.

Taking advantage of these new capabilities will, of course, require geoscientists who know how to use them. Today, many geoscientists face enormous pressure to requalify themselves for a rapidly changing job market and to keep pace with the growing complexity of computational technologies. Academia, meanwhile, faces the demanding task of designing innovative training to help students and others adapt to market conditions, although finding professionals who can teach these courses is challenging because they are in high demand in the private sector. However, such teaching opportunities could provide a point of entry for young scientists specializing in computer science or part-time positions for professionals retired from industry or national labs [Morra et al., 2021b].

The coming decade will see a rapid revolution in data analytics that will significantly affect the processing and flow of information in the geosciences. Artificial intelligence and high-performance computing are the two central elements shaping this new landscape. Students and professionals in the geosciences will need new forms of education enabling them to rapidly learn the modern tools of data analytics and predictive modeling. If done well, the concurrence of these new tools and a workforce primed to capitalize on them could lead to new paradigm-shifting insights that, much as the plate tectonic revolution did, help us address major geoscientific questions in the future.

The listed authors thank Peter Gerstoft, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; Henry M. Tufo, University of Colorado Boulder; and David A. Yuen, Columbia University and Ocean University of China, Qingdao, who contributed equally to the writing of this article.

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A Tectonic Shift in Analytics and Computing Is Coming - Eos

Eleven Japanese companies, including Toshiba Corp., plan to jointly launch a council this summer in a bid to create a new industry using quantum technology, the companies said Monday.

The council will identify and discuss issues linked to quantum computers, quantum cryptography and other base technologies, as well as those on related human resources and rules, with an aim to explore the possibility of industrializing quantum technology, which is widely expected to play a key role in national security.

Quantum computers have much higher computing capabilities than conventional computers, while quantum cryptography theoretically makes wiretapping impossible.

With the council, the 11 companies, which also include Toyota Motor Corp. and Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corp., hope to boost their presence at a time when U.S. and Chinese players are vying with each other in the research and development of quantum technology.

This is an all-Japan system aimed at making the country a world innovation leader in quantum technology, Toshiba President Satoshi Tsunakawa said at the councils foundation meeting on Monday.

Also on Monday, online flea market operator Mercari Inc. said it has set up an organization for the research and development of quantum internet, jointly with Keio University and the University of Tokyo.

Quantum internet, which involves the exchange of quantum data, allows users to have safe communication, protecting them from prying eyes.

Mercari plans to encourage other companies to join the organization. Shota Nagayama, a senior researcher at Mercari, said, We want more firms to join our efforts to accumulate knowledge.

The new organization aims to put quantum internet into practical use on a trial basis in 15 years.

These moves highlight that industry-government-academia cooperation is gaining momentum in Japan over the research and development of quantum technology, which is applicable to many sorts of businesses.

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Toshiba and 10 other Japanese firms to form quantum tech tie-up - The Japan Times

There are many undocumented residents in the United States who have been paying taxes for over 20 years. I know one undocumented family who has been living in the USA for over 29 years paying taxes as a voiceless people group.

Some might be smuggled to the United States due to the gang violence, poverty, and corrupted social system in their country. Some have become undocumented even though they entered the country legally and earned an academic degree. They were unable to find work or the company that employed them didnt have enough business to be able to sponsor them.

This situation leads many white-collar, undocumented people to become voiceless, right-less and helpless people in our country.

Id like to appeal for the reformation of immigration laws. Currently, our immigration reform is focused on the Dream Act. That is surely a win/win situation.

But there are people who came to the United States in their thirties and paid their taxes faithfully. Many are now in their sixties and wouldnt benefit from the Dream Act, even though they have spent their whole lives in America as faithful taxpayers.

I propose anyone who has lived in the United States longer than 15 years and has proof of paying taxes should be granted an immediate, permanent Visa to allow them to remain in this country.

There also are many children who have been suffering from their parents cancellation of their adoption. If adopted parents did not pursue their childs citizenship status, he or she becomes an international orphan. Some of these adult children even ended their lives because they couldnt find any place to call home.

For this reason, I believe the adopted childs application for citizenship should be mandated at the international airport when they first arrive in the United States.

Sarah H Kim is pastor of the Nittany/ Sugar Valley Charge in Loganton, Pa.

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We need immigration reform to help people who have lived in this country and paid taxes for decades | PennLiv - pennlive.com

Years ago, immigration talks between President George W. Bush and Vicente Fox, then the president of Mexico, went on for too long, and after the attacks of Sept. 11, any hope of reaching an agreement was shattered. President Barack Obama failed to introduce his immigration reform proposal in 2009, when his party controlled both chambers of Congress and the country was facing a severe financial crisis; later, he didnt have enough votes to pass it. President Biden shouldnt take these kinds of risks. He should hurry.

To demonstrate that the issue is important to him, Mr. Biden recently met with a group of Dreamers at the White House. The meeting was extraordinary in and of itself. These young people were brought into the United States by their parents illegally, and are exempted from deportation through the Deferred Action on Childhood Arrivals program. A meeting like this during the Trump era would have been unthinkable.

Mara Praeli, 28, is one of the Dreamers who met with Mr. Biden. She was 5 years old when she was brought to the United States from Peru. The United States is my home, she told me. Feeling so American, having so many memories in this country, and yet not knowing if I will be able to make a future for myself here is really hard. I just hope this is the year something happens.

One of Mr. Bidens first acts upon taking office was sending a comprehensive immigration proposal to Congress. And according to a Quinnipiac University poll published in February, most Americans support a pathway to citizenship for the undocumented. But this proposal and similar bills remain stuck on Capitol Hill.

Democrats still lack the votes to overturn the current Senate rules, which effectively require proponents of most bills to muster 60-vote supermajorities to advance them. The only way out is to end the minority partys power to stall legislation the filibuster and pass very concrete laws for the benefit of Dreamers and migrant farm workers through a procedural budget shortcut called reconciliation. Both issues are politically aggressive and would face huge Republican opposition. But its about time we made radical decisions to protect the lives of millions of immigrants like Mara.

President Biden, the clock is ticking. Please dont wait much longer. We cant afford to repeat the mistakes of the past.

Jorge Ramos (@jorgeramosnews) is an anchor for the Univision network, a contributing opinion writer and the author of, most recently, Stranger: The Challenge of a Latino Immigrant in the Trump Era.

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Opinion | President Biden, the Clock Is Ticking to Rescind a Trump Immigration Policy - The New York Times

WASHINGTON U.S. Senator John Cornyn (R-TX)s Bipartisan Border Solutions Act, the only bipartisan, bicameral legislation to respond to the surge in migrants coming across our southern border, has garnered support from immigration groups, elected officials, and business organizations. You can learn more about this legislation here.

National Border Patrol Council: It will target resources to those of us directly responding to the increase of migrants, so that we can better do our jobs and keep American border communities safe. We appreciate their strong engagement with the border region and their firsthand knowledge of the current immigration crisis, and this bill will give us the resources to tackle todays influx head-on. (President Brandon Judd, Letter, 4/27/2021)

U.S. Hispanic Chamber of Commerce: We need immigration reform that provides immigrants and asylum seeker with a process that is equitable and fair for all. The Bipartisan Border Solutions Act of 2021 will address our overwhelmed asylum-seeking process through additional resources to U.S. Customs and Border Patrol (CBP) personnel, and more support for local governments in border communities. (USHCC President and CEO Ramiro A. Cavazos, Statement, 5/18/21)

Texas Border Coalition: Your legislation is an important step toward addressing this growing problem with adequately resourced immigration courts, smart border enforcement, common-sense immigration reform and support for local border communities that provide humanitarian assistance to migrants. (Texas Border Coalition, Letter, 5/18/21)

Rio Grande Valley Partnership: The RGV Partnership applauds the bipartisan efforts from lawmakers in both chambers to advance the Bipartisan Border Solutions Act of 2021. (President/CEO Sergio Contreras, Letter, 5/18/2021)

South Texans Property Rights Association: This legislation, if passed, would help by bringing the much needed resources to adjudicate asylum seekers at the southern border. Additionally, the bill would help streamline the current asylum system backlog, and more importantly the bill would expand the scope of well-being checks to ensure UAC are not being exploited by human and drug smugglers. (Statement, 5/19/21)

Border Trade Alliance: We believe strongly that your bill will better equip DHS and the Department of Justice to efficiently and properly manage the flow of migrants in a manner that treats migrants fairly, reduces the strain on local community resources, and maintains normal port of entry operations. We are especially encouraged that your legislation will allow DHS and DOJ increased hiring authority to ensure that frontline DHS personnel can continue to carry out their critically important agency mission. (Chair Sergio Contreras and President Britton Mullen, Letter, 5/20/21)

Luis Sifuentes, Mayor of Eagle Pass, Texas: As Mayor of the City of Eagle Pass, I would like to extend my full support this program will certainly attest to the urgency that small communities along the U.S.-Mexico border are experiencing on a daily basis. (Mayor Sifuentes, Letter, 4/26/21)

Southwest Border Sheriffs Coalition and Texas Border Sheriffs Coalition: Their Bipartisan Border Solutions Act does something no one else has: it brings together solutions from both parties to address our current border crisis now. Thank you to Sen. Cornyn, Sen. Sinema, and Reps. Cuellar and Gonzales in the House, for accommodating law enforcement with resources to combat this crisis. (Statements, 5/19/21)

Major Cities Chiefs Association: The MCCA commends you for eschewing politics and working together in a bipartisan manner to ensure our country can better address these challenges Several provisions in the Bipartisan Border Solutions Act will improve the ability of the federal government to respond to migrant surges at the border. (Chief Art Acevedo, Letter, 4/26/21)

National Association of Evangelicals: Your bill is an important first step toward a bipartisan solution to other issues and challenges In a polarized political context, you both deserve much credit for working together across partisan lines to serve our nation. (President Walter Kim and Vice President for Government Relations Galen Carey, Letter, 4/21/21)

Southern Baptist Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission: Your efforts provide hope that the reforms that will promote human flourishing through greater security and efficiency in our immigration system are indeed possible. (President Russell Moore, Letter, 4/30/21)

Niskanen Center: Not only does this bill pose necessary and pragmatic changes advocated by Niskanen for years, but it also demonstrates the ability of lawmakers on both sides of the aisle to work together to advance immigration reform. With such broad support, there is no reason to delay enacting this bill. (Vice President of Policy and Director of Immigration Kristie De Pea, Statement, 4/23/21)

U.S. Chamber of Commerce: These types of provisions are not only necessary to confront the ongoing crisis on our southern border, but they also need to be considered by Congress as they debate other immigration issues where reform is desperately needed. (EVP and Chief Policy Officer Neil Bradley, Press Release, 4/22/21)

National Immigration Forum: This is a positive step that bodes well for the chances for immigration reforms this year. We commend Senators Cornyn and Sinema for working across party lines to introduce a bill that addresses current challenges at the U.S.-Mexico border. (President and CEO Ali Noorani, Statement, 4/22/21)

American Business Immigration Coalition: A serious bipartisan effort to address the challenges at our nations borders The ball is moving forward, progress is being made, and we celebrate these both senators for working together. (ABIC Co-Chairs, Statement, 4/23/21)

Texas Association of Business: TAB applauds Senator Cornyn and Senator Sinema's bipartisan border bill. We need a border that is safe, orderly and secure and we need to move forward on sensible bipartisan immigration solutions (TAB, Tweet, 4/23/21)

New American Economy: This immigration bill from Senator Cornyn and Senator Sinema shows bipartisan solutions on this issue are possible. We hope the Senate will work to advance this legislation alongside other bipartisan bills on needed protections. (Executive Director Jeremy Robbins, Tweet, 4/23/21)

The LIBRE Initiative/Americans for Prosperity: Border states like Texas have had to improvise and adapt to address the weight of an immigration system in dire need of reform. We commend these lawmakers for introducing this bipartisan and bicameral legislation that will go a long way towards addressing the situation at the border. (Coalitions Director Jorge Martinez and Americans for Prosperity Texas State Director Genevieve Collins, Statement, 4/22/21)

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What They're Saying: Cornyn's Bipartisan Border Solutions Act - Senator John Cornyn