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The U.S.-led coalition in Iraq and Syria appears to have used white phosphorus-loaded munitions on at least two occasions in densely populated areas of Mosul and in the Islamic States de facto capital of Raqqa, according to videos posted online and human rights groups.

The often-controversial munitionsare common in western militariesand are used primarily tocreate smoke screens, though they can also be droppedas an incendiaryweapon. When a white phosphorus shell explodes, the chemical inside reacts with the air, creating a thick white cloud. When it comes in contact with flesh, it can maim and kill by burning to the bone.

While international humanitarianlaw stipulates that civiliansmustbe protected from all military operations, it also says that countries must take even more care when using white phosphorus. Additionally, becauseof the weapons ability to cause grievous and inhumane injuries,rights groupscautionagainst using white phosphorus to killenemy troopsif other weapons are available.

[U.S. forces are using white phosphorus munitions in Iraq but its unclear exactly how]

On Thursday, footage posted by the activist group Raqqa is Being Slaughtered Silently showedthe signature spread of airburst white phosphorus munitions probably M825 series 155mm artillery rounds exploding over eastern Raqqa, the same area where U.S.-backed Syrian fighters made advances earlier this week.

U.S. Army Col. Ryan Dillon, a spokesman for the U.S.-led coalition fighting in Iraq and Syria, would not confirm the use of the munition but said in an email that the U.S. military uses it in accordance with the law of armed conflict and that white phosphorus rounds are used for screening, obscuring, and marking in a way that fully considers the possible incidental effects on civilians and civilian structures.

The coalition takes all reasonable precautions to minimize the risk of incidental injury to non-combatants and damage to civilian structures, he said.

The Pentagon posted photographs of Marine M777 howitzers in Syria deployed to support the Raqqa operation with a pallet of white phosphorus munitions in May. The image was taken in March, and while the unit in the photograph probably has returned to the United States, its replacement is likely using similar munitions.

Mary Wareham, the advocacy director at Human Rights Watchs arms division, said in email that the group is still trying to determine the veracity of the videos, but the munitions look similar to the ones used Saturday in the Iraqi city of Mosul. Wareham said that in Mosul it appeared that the rounds exploded close to the ground, in an attempt to minimize the footprint of the effects.

When M825 rounds explode, they jettison roughly 115 felt wedges that are impregnated with white phosphorus. If exploded high abovethe ground, the wedges can spread over a greater distance, starting fires over a wide area. InMosul, smokemunitionswere used, according to a statementby Iraqi forces, to provide cover for civilians targeted by Islamic State snipers.

While the Islamic State controls only a few remaining neighborhoods in the western part of Mosul, the small area is packed with tens of thousands of civilians, raising concerns among rights groups that the heavy fighting will kill hundreds of civilians before the fighting ends.

White phosphorus should not be air burst over populated areas due to its indiscriminate effect but its not clear from available information that civilians are in the area, Wareham said. The [Iraqi Security Forces]is claiming that it used white phosphorusto protect civilians. As such, more information is needed to determine whether the white phosphorususe here is lawful.

In Raqqa, however, the footage shows the munitions bursting relatively high off the ground over a cluster of buildings. It is unclear if Islamic State fighters are in the area, but thousands of civilians are known to be still in the city. In the days leading up to the battle in the city, U.S.-backed Syrian fighters called on civilians to evacuate prior to the offensive, but after commencing their attack, theyve now told those inside to shelter in their homesand avoid Islamic State positions.

[t Pentagon acknowledges more civilian deaths in U.S.-led air campaign against Islamic State]

A report from the casualty-monitoring group Airwars.Org indicates that this mixed messaging has created some confusion among the civilian population in the city and that despite the fighting, some are still evacuating.

The Pentagon has admitted to killing roughly 500 civilians in the nearly three-year-old war against the Islamic State. Monitoring groups, such as Airwars, say that number is extremely conservative. The U.K.-based organization claimsthat roughly 3,800 civilians have been killed by the U.S.-led coalition.

Read more:

Airstrike monitoring group overwhelmed by claims of U.S.-caused civilian casualties

Away from Iraqs front lines, the Islamic State is creeping back in

I thought, this is it: One mans escape from an Islamic State mass execution

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US-led forces appear to be using white phosphorus in populated areas in Iraq and Syria - Washington Post