Cryptomania: The good, the bad, and the ugly – Brookings Institution
Throughout financial history, many speculative manias have been characterized by a repeated mix of basic ingredients: from the enthusiasm of uninformed investors motivated by disruptive innovations, the inevitable illusion of easy profits to the infallible reference to the paradigm shift that will supposedly sustain the momentum over time, often conveniently seasoned with abundant global liquidity.
All manias end in the same way, with a sharp correction that collapses prices like a house of cards as the classic narrative of Kindleberger (1978) and the more recent one of Reinhart and Rogoff (2009) pointed out. In a nutshell, its another case of greed negating fear until it is too late for anything but panic.
The recent saga of the crypto ecosystem reproduces these elements, enhanced by a techno-anarcho-libertarian stick-it-to-the-man attitude against the established two-tiered monetary and financial system. The search for the benefits of anonymitymainly against taxes and, occasionally, the lawand for complete decentralization in transactionstrying to get rid of noncompetitive fees of the financial industry and the seignorage of exploitative central bankstended to generate many elements of financial fragility, and, occasionally, outright fraud.
Triggered by the Feds monetary tightening and over a few weeks, the crypto debacle comprised a succession of dramatic events, including:
All that against the backdrop of a sell-off that printed, at the time of this writing, a vertiginous correction of roughly 66 percent from its November 2021 $3-trillion peak, after growing explosively in the bubbling pandemic years, courtesy of the oversized monetary and fiscal impulses in core economies. The collapse surprised both mom-and-pop savers and large professional investors alike, and promptedan open letter toCongress, signed by more than 1,500 technologists, urging the body to take a critical, skeptical approach toward industry claims that crypto-assets are an innovative technology that is unreservedly good.
So how good (or bad) are crypto assets for healthy financial development?
Since the introduction of bitcoin at the beginning of 2009, the number of cryptocurrencies has soared to some 15,000, although in many cases they are mere replicas with very low trading volumes in search of unwary investors (the top 20 crypto assets account for 90 percent of market capitalization). Alongside this proliferationand inefficient inherent fragmentation opposed to the needs of a sound payment systemunregulated activities such as loans and leverage, and new varieties (stablecoins) have emerged to address some of the most ostensible weaknesses of the first crypto assets.
While they currently represent less than 1 percent of the global financial market, and their interconnections with it are stillluckilyquite limited, the recent trend of explosive growth, if undeterred, could pose potential risks to financial stability, just as the tiny subprime market did in 2008. And this is true not just in emerging economies where the lack of monetary credibility and limited financial access can foster currency substitution and credit disintermediation or cryptoizationthe digital version of dollarization. In advanced economies, competition from the large technological platforms in the provision of digital means of payment could limit national monetary autonomy, lead to concentrated market structures as a result of network economies, and add to financial fragility as the append-only, irreversible nature of blockchain transactions makes the unwinding of system errorsessential to any payment systemalmost impossible.
More than a decade after its launch, bitcoin has so far failed in its original objective of establishing itself as a suitable substitute that fully fulfills the functions of money. Paradoxically, bitcoins original call to replace central bankswhich ensure price stability by elastically matching money demandwith a decentralized scheme based on a rigid supply of a unique cryptocurrency that replicates the barbarous relic logic of the gold standard and its deflationary bias may end up in hyperinflation due to the uncontrolled spread of competing cryptocurrencies.
Lacking intrinsic economic value, crypto prices are inherently volatile, as they are tied exclusively to the fluctuations of their demandthe opposite of what one would expect of a good unit of account. Moreover, because of their decentralized nature, their application cannot be escalated without inefficiently high fees, congestion problems, or security risks (the so called Buterins Trilemma). Finally, if massively adopted, they could generate an environmental disaster due to the energy-intensive proof-of-work of most crypto systems. Unsurprisingly, then, cryptos have so far failed to play a significant role as a reliable means of paymentwith the exception of informal, illegal, or criminal transactionsleaving them as a vehicle for die-hard speculators, herd investors, and institutional asset managers belatedly lured by their alleged diversification advantages, if not just by FOMO-inducing hype.
A priori, stablecoins are in a different class altogether, their main purpose being precisely to overcome the intractable volatility of conventional cryptocurrencies. Stablecoins come in two types. Type 1, algorithmic, is based on smart contracts that defend the peg by buying or selling it against other crypto assets in a scheme worryingly reminiscent of a Ponzi game, as the Terra-Luna fiasco vividly illustrated. Type 2, custodial, follows the principle of a traditional currency board (like Hong Kongs long-standing exchange rate arrangement): The supply -of coins- is fully matched by a stock of liquid investment-grade assets denominated in the peg currency, so that holders can readily exchange them one to one on demand. In principle, only the custodial type might earn the stable moniker, but how stable are stablecoins in reality?
Two conditions are needed for the scheme to work. The first one is fairly obvious: There are no substitutes for actual reserve assets, the backing should be real and easily verifiable. In practice this has not always been the case: For example, doubts about the backing of Tether last year led to the companys belated revelation that, indeed, less than half of the stock was actually backed by high quality and liquid assets (HQLA) like U.S. Treasurys, with the rest comprised of assets that could rapidly lose value under financial stress.
The second condition is more subtle and technical: Stablecoin deposits cannot be on-lent. If they are, part of these loans would go into new deposits, which could also be on-lent, multiplying the stock of crypto-denominated assets in excess of the original, fully backed supply of stablecoins, and exposing the whole scheme to a run that exceeds the stock of reserves (as in the collapse of Argentinas currency board in 2001).
Now, if a stable stablecoin cannot be on-lenta condition that we have elsewhere called the stablecoin paradoxand merely represents a digital avatar of a stock of liquid reserves denominated in the peg currencyand leaving aside the less than virtuous role of facilitating illegal activities: What explains their popularity and their relatively large turnover? Stablecoins are mainly used as a vehicle currency to support a wide range of endogamic DeFi products and services, posting collateral for other crypto operations or as insurance against hackers, lost keys, smart contract failures, and other cyber mishaps, without much contact with the real economy.
Add to that the absurd valuations, the endogamic trading prone to contagion and domino effects, the need of protection of small investors unfamiliar with the risks of opaque assets, the information gaps and the unclear legal status of crypto assets, and the lack of a liquidity backstop, and one starts to see why central banks around the globe have started to take the crypto revolution as a challenge to financial stability. While this has led some observers to argue that stablecoins should be banned altogether, central banks have so far adopted a more nuanced two-way response, requiring that they be properly regulatedand throwing their own central bank digital currency (CBDC) into the mix.
Unlike cryptocurrencies, a CBDC is a digital token that represents a legal claim on the central bankin other words, digital cash. As of this writing, out of the growing number of central banks exploring the feasibility of their own CBDC, 28 have already launched pilots (including one in China with roughly 260 million users), and at least three retail CBDC projects (in the Bahamas, Nigeria, and the Eastern Caribbean) are already in place.
Is this a new crypto-related fad, or the future of digital payments?
For starters, there is an issue that never ceases to be relevant to emerging economies: financial inclusion at reasonable costs. Private payment service providers (PSPs) such as PayPal, like banks and credit cards, tend to be concentrated and to charge high feeswhich in less developed economies tends to favor cash transactions and informalitywith several wholesale CBDCs focused on reducing cross-border transaction costsmost notably, of remittances. Moreover, in line with their inclusion mandate, retail CBDCs could allow for instant and final payments on a 24/7 basis at a negligible or zero charge for retail users, including those deemed unprofitable by private providers.
One could argue that many of those features are already covered by existing or forthcoming fast retail payment systems (FPRS). Based on a public data architecture and on the interoperability of different payment platforms, FPRS already allow for greater competition between banks and PSPs offering transactional accounts, while avoiding the pitfalls of monopolistic fees. Since their first launch in Korea in 2001, more than 60 jurisdictions have introduced FPRS, and many others are planning to do so. In Brazil, for example, after only 18 months of implementation, more than 70% of adults have used Pix, with 50 million first digital payment users. Indias successful Unified Payments Interface exhibits a comparable success, and Mexicos Codi and Argentinas Transferencias 3.0 are also making progress.
This notwithstanding, the continued research on CBDCs reflects additional concerns. In a context of ongoing digital innovation, many central banks fear a continuous decline in the demand for cash that risk losing the grip on monetary autonomy. On the upside (and more speculatively), a remunerated CBDC could potentially enlarge the monetary policy space, giving central banks new instruments to elude deflationary traps (a topical concern not so long ago).
The CBDC versus crypto debate is only starting and no doubt exceeds its more technical, monetary aspects. The crypto zeitgeist, like the hacker ethics of the 60s or the free software movements of the 80s, is often imbued with a cultural narrative that permeates lifestyles and ideologiesfrom tattooed billionaires to kamikaze politicians.
But ultimately it remains a financial issue that highlights the risks of mistaking technological ingenuity for monetary wisdom, jumping into the future without giving the future enough time to introduce itself.
Read more:
Cryptomania: The good, the bad, and the ugly - Brookings Institution
- Hyundai, LAPD to host event for vehicle owners to receive crucial software update - KTLA Los Angeles - May 20th, 2024 [May 20th, 2024]
- Best free text-to-speech software of 2024 - TechRadar - May 20th, 2024 [May 20th, 2024]
- Best free word processor of 2024 - TechRadar - May 20th, 2024 [May 20th, 2024]
- Best free antivirus in 2024 - TechRadar - May 20th, 2024 [May 20th, 2024]
- 'Open-Shell Menu' is an open source software that returns the Windows start menu to its previous appearance for free - GIGAZINE - May 20th, 2024 [May 20th, 2024]
- Avast Free Antivirus: Testing its features and learning about the six layers of protection - TechSpot - May 20th, 2024 [May 20th, 2024]
- The best Android antivirus apps in 2024 - Tom's Guide - May 3rd, 2024 [May 3rd, 2024]
- Best photo editing software in 2024 - Tom's Guide - May 3rd, 2024 [May 3rd, 2024]
- BYD recalls 16666 Seagull EVs in China due to software issue that may prevent reverse camera image from displaying - CnEVPost - May 3rd, 2024 [May 3rd, 2024]
- KIA installs free anti-theft software this weekend in St. Louis area - KSDK.com - April 28th, 2024 [April 28th, 2024]
- KIA installing free anti-theft software to impacted car owners - WHAS11.com - April 28th, 2024 [April 28th, 2024]
- Free Windows Apps and Software for PC Gamers to Take Gaming to the Next Level - Gizchina.com - April 28th, 2024 [April 28th, 2024]
- Best survey tool of 2024 - TechRadar - April 28th, 2024 [April 28th, 2024]
- Grand Rapids Police and Hyundai Offer Free Anti-Theft Software Upgrades Amid Vehicle Theft Wave - Hoodline - April 26th, 2024 [April 26th, 2024]
- Blueprint Software Systems Announces Free Trial for RPA Analytics Solution - PR Web - April 26th, 2024 [April 26th, 2024]
- Houston Police, Hyundai to host free anti-theft security event for vehicle owners - Houston Public Media - April 26th, 2024 [April 26th, 2024]
- Descartes Systems buys Aerospace Software Developments Winnipeg Free Press - Winnipeg Free Press - April 26th, 2024 [April 26th, 2024]
- Kia offers free software upgrades in Cleveland this weekend - WKYC.com - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Free software lets you design and test warp drives with real physics - New Atlas - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Clinic offering free Kia software updates continuing through weekend - Yahoo! Voices - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Hyundai providing free anti-theft software installation this weekend at Greenspoint Mall - KHOU.com - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Kia offers free software upgrades in Cleveland this weekend: How to get yours - WKYC.com - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Hyundai providing free anti-theft software installion in Houston - KHOU.com - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Kia gives free software upgrades this weekend at the Cleveland Aquarium - WKYC.com - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Ubuntu Studio in new LTS beta; still the easiest creative Linux distro - CDM Create Digital Music - Create Digital Music - April 20th, 2024 [April 20th, 2024]
- Free anti-theft software upgrades available for Central Texas Hyundai drivers - KEYE TV CBS Austin - March 15th, 2024 [March 15th, 2024]
- How to get free help with income tax prep, or free software | Business | postandcourier.com - The Post and Courier - February 23rd, 2024 [February 23rd, 2024]
- Best encryption software of 2024 - TechRadar - February 23rd, 2024 [February 23rd, 2024]
- The best free VPN in 2024 - TechRadar - February 23rd, 2024 [February 23rd, 2024]
- AI imaging software generates a gallery of stereotypes, says Univ. of ... - GeekWire - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- Roku's free update that makes it easier to find new shows and ... - TechRadar - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- How To Find Alternatives To ChatGPT Forbes Advisor UK - Forbes - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- How To Find Alternatives To ChatGPT Forbes Advisor Australia - Forbes - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- Assassin's Creed Syndicate is now free to keep on Ubisoft Connect - OC3D - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- Google Confirms Its Schedule for Disabling Third-Party Cookies in ... - Slashdot - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- Tata Consultancy Services Ordered To Cough Up $210 Million In ... - Slashdot - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- Meta Knowingly Collected Data on Pre-Teens, Unredacted ... - Slashdot - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- US, Britain, Other Countries Ink Agreement To Make AI 'Secure by ... - Slashdot - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- Plex Users Fear New Feature Will Leak Porn Habits To Their ... - Slashdot - November 28th, 2023 [November 28th, 2023]
- This free software converts drone videos into 2D maps in minutes! - DroneDJ - November 14th, 2023 [November 14th, 2023]
- How 'Hour of Code' Will Teach Students About Issues with AI - Slashdot - November 14th, 2023 [November 14th, 2023]
- Nothing is Bringing iMessage To Its Android Phone - Slashdot - November 14th, 2023 [November 14th, 2023]
- How To Build A WordPress Website In 9 Steps - Forbes - November 1st, 2023 [November 1st, 2023]
- Best Adobe Acrobat free alternatives - PC Guide - For The Latest PC Hardware & Tech News - November 1st, 2023 [November 1st, 2023]
- Monday.com Pricing and Plans 2023 Forbes Advisor Canada - Forbes - November 1st, 2023 [November 1st, 2023]
- PIRG Petitions Microsoft To Extend the Life of Windows 10 - Slashdot - November 1st, 2023 [November 1st, 2023]
- Kidsoft launches free calculator to simplify "Free Kindy" fee working - The Sector - November 1st, 2023 [November 1st, 2023]
- Drugmakers Are Set To Pay 23andMe Millions To Access Consumer ... - Slashdot - November 1st, 2023 [November 1st, 2023]
- Biden Signs Executive Order To Oversee and Invest in AI - Slashdot - November 1st, 2023 [November 1st, 2023]
- Meta's Next AI Attack on OpenAI: Free Code-Generating Software - The Information - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- Millions of Samsung Galaxy S23 users just got a sweet free software ... - Yahoo Life - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- Red Hat unlikely to be standard for enterprise Linux in future, says ... - iTWire - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- Observing Basics: Astrophotography without a scope | Astronomy.com - Astronomy Magazine - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- Chattanooga trucking and logistics companies are among the fastest ... - Chattanooga Times Free Press - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- How Google is Planning To Beat OpenAI - Slashdot - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- Tesla Says It Will Build New 'First of Its Kind' Data Centers - Slashdot - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- Bank of Ireland IT Blunder Allows Customers To Withdraw More ... - Slashdot - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- LK-99 Isn't a Superconductor - How Science Sleuths Solved the ... - Slashdot - August 18th, 2023 [August 18th, 2023]
- Mayor Bowser Announces Hyundai Anti-Theft Mobile Clinic | mayormb - Executive Office of the Mayor - July 30th, 2023 [July 30th, 2023]
- Responding to Data Breach at Contractor | CMS - CMS - July 30th, 2023 [July 30th, 2023]
- Five Auburn Alumni Receive Award for Work to Advance Tax Prep ... - CPAPracticeAdvisor.com - July 30th, 2023 [July 30th, 2023]
- Codeiums Varun Mohan and Jeff Wang on Unleashing the Power of ... - Nvidia - July 30th, 2023 [July 30th, 2023]
- Banner Health provides free concussion baseline testing for every ... - Queen Creek Sun Times - July 30th, 2023 [July 30th, 2023]
- Hugging Face, GitHub and More Unite To Defend Open Source in ... - Slashdot - July 30th, 2023 [July 30th, 2023]
- Lindsey Graham and Elizabeth Warren: When It Comes To Big Tech ... - Slashdot - July 30th, 2023 [July 30th, 2023]
- Best Dogecoin Casinos & Gambling Sites Ranked by DOGE Bonuses, Games, and More - The Hudson Reporter - July 2nd, 2023 [July 2nd, 2023]
- GCC Steering Committee Announces a Code of Conduct - Slashdot - July 2nd, 2023 [July 2nd, 2023]
- AI Predicts Diseases, Advancing Toward HIV Cure, Acquisitions ... - Bio-IT World - July 2nd, 2023 [July 2nd, 2023]
- WISeKey upgrades its WISeID digital identity and privacy platform - Help Net Security - July 2nd, 2023 [July 2nd, 2023]
- FBI Forms National Database To Track and Prevent 'Swatting' - Slashdot - July 2nd, 2023 [July 2nd, 2023]
- BYU Library offers free software classes - The Daily Universe - Universe.byu.edu - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- Free Streaming Software Market to Witness an Outstanding Growth ... - The Bowman Extra - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- How to build a virtual studio for free with free plugins and music ... - MusicRadar - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- Battlebit Remastered Price - Is it free? - PC Guide - For The Latest PC Hardware & Tech News - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- How to Install the iPadOS 17 Developer Beta on Your iPad for Free - MacRumors - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- Human Resources Software: 4 HR Tools for Small Businesses - CO by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- YouTube Tells Open-Source Privacy Software 'Invidious' to Shut Down - Slashdot - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- Arctic Could Be Sea Ice-Free in the Summer by the 2030s - Slashdot - June 16th, 2023 [June 16th, 2023]
- The IRS Will Test Out Its Own Free Tax Prep Software in 2024 - Money - May 20th, 2023 [May 20th, 2023]
- The IRS is working on software to allow taxpayers to file online - NPR - May 20th, 2023 [May 20th, 2023]