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McCarthyism, often synonymous with the term witch hunt, evolved in American politics after 1950 and continued until 1957. This term was coined by a Republican Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy who served in the U.S. Senate from 1947 to 1957.

McCarthyism was described in the American political lexicon as the practice of publicly accusing American government employees of political disloyalty (Communism) and subversive activities. Hence, the Congress enacted the McCarran Act, also known as the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950, to counter communism among members of the Communist Party of the U.S. and government employees who were loyal to a foreign power and secretly infiltrated American cultural and political institutions.

But a few years later this investigation gained notoriety for making baseless accusations against Americans with little regard for evidence and using unfair investigation methods while ignoring civil rights and liberties.

During this investigation, many government employees' careers were ended simply because they were accused of having communist sympathies. Moreover, under the McCarthyism investigation, many lives and reputations of Americans were ruined or blacklisted without credible evidence of any wrongdoing.

According to some historians, between 1947 and 1965, 5 million government employees were investigated, of which about 2,700 people were forced to leave their jobs and 12,000 people resigned.

Actually, this investigation violated the freedom of speech provided for in the First Amendment, one of the founding principles of the U.S. Constitution. The unfavorable McCarthyism investigation was very un-American, and it was dangerous to America.

In 1954, the McCarthy hearings were televised. When Sen. McCarthy accused an army officer of being a communist (the so-called Army-McCarthy hearings), it gave rise to backlash against McCarthyism.

Finally, the U.S. Supreme Court put an end to McCarthyism in 1957 to stop the irrational investigation. Today, McCarthyism is used as a term to indicate when the government violates due process by ignoring the civil rights of citizens. Overall, McCarthyism's biggest effect was that it created an anti-democratic atmosphere.

A modern version of the 'hunt'

Francis Fukuyama's article "The End of History" argued that the collapse of the Soviet Union and communism is imminent. Fukuyama acknowledged the victory of both politics and economy heading in the direction of a liberal order with the West and Western ideas.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the bipolar international system changed and left the U.S. an unchallenged power. The U.S. has changed its Cold War foreign policy strategy to emerge as a unipolar superpower of the world.

At the beginning of the 21st century, with the emergence of a multipolar system and globalization, U.S. foreign policy transitioned from the Old World order to a new one. The 21st century began with a new history for the U.S with the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attack.

'War on Terror'

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the U.S. found a new enemy and launched a "war on terror." Many scholars described the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks as the initiation of a "new era" or "new world order" in international relations. The American military response to Sept. 11 was an unprecedented way of devising foreign policy strategy to kill terrorist Osama bin Laden.

It was clear that the U.S was justifying its unrivaled military operations on the pretext of a war on terror for the world leadership. In this regard, the invasion of Kuwait by then-Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was another opportunity to attack the Iraqi leader.

President George W. Bush, in the State of the Union address in 2002, made clear when he said to the world that "either you are with America or you are with the terrorists." Since then, the U.S. has expanded the war on terror regardless of who the president is.

In this regard, the term "witch hunt" was revitalized after Sept. 11 for the threat of terror in international affairs. The American government often targets Muslims, trying to catch or kill "terrorists" across the globe through military operations.

So, is the U.S.'s Terrorist Watch List a modern version of a witch hunt? The threat of terror has taken specific forms, particularly Islamic countries or groups. For example, the American government defined Iran, Iraq and Libya as "rogue states" to give the perception that those governments sponsor terrorism.

American presidents have expanded the targeting of states suspected of harboring terrorists to include "potential terrorist hotspots." The U.S. can justify its military attack on any sovereign country by using the threat of terror. American presidents' rhetoric culturally stereotypes non-Westerners as "others," particularly in the Muslim world, although Muslims have rejected all kinds of terrorism.

After World War II, anti-communism became hysterical until 1991, and from 2001 to present, the "war on terror" has become hysterical in international relations.

Paradigm on terrorism

A modern terrorism witch hunt began with the terrorist attacks on Sept. 11. This event has completely changed the world order vis-a-vis international relations.

Bush defined the Sept.11 attacks as "a new war," and this was the paradigm shift for the new world order in the 21st century.

The new paradigm is a war on terrorism on global scale since 2001, which is the top priority for national security. The Bush administration categorized the countries based on their involvement in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

'Axis of Evil'

In this regard, the U.S. labeled North Korea, Iran and Iraq as the "axis of evil." Any country that was linked to the spread of WMD, ballistic missiles and development of nuclear weapons was also viewed as part of the "axis of evil." As a result, they were also considered supporters of terrorism.

In the long term, the implication of the war on terrorism has been building a new U.S.-led world order. That effort led the U.S. to adopt the role of "world policeman."

Since the Sept. 11 attacks, the U.S. has been expanding its military operations on the pretext of global terrorism around the world (North Korea, Afghanistan, Iran, the Middle East and Africa, etc.) This is the U.S.'s renewed version of "witch hunts for terrorism" in international relations.

The last example of a terrorism witch hunt was the U.S. killing of Iranian commander Qasem Soleimani in a drone strike in Baghdad. President Donald Trump said that "he was a monster."

International relations have been undergoing fundamental changes since the introduction of the "war on terrorism" in 2001. This change is viewed as a paradigm shift for the new world order in international politics. In the 21st century, state affairs have been moving away from international norms led by Western ideas and liberalism to state affairs where international norms are no longer respected. In this situation, where no norms are important to anyone, states ultimately opt to choose military power in the international relations on the pretext of terrorism.

*Yksel holds a Ph.D. in political science and public management from Erciyes University.

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McCarthyism's transition in paradigm: 'Terror witch hunt' - Daily Sabah

"The past few days have again witnessed the escalation of bloody repression by the security forces against the demonstrators in Baghdad and other provinces, which led to the death of more demonstrators and dozens injured.

In addition to repeatedly using live bullets, yesterday the security forces also attacked the sit-ins in squares in Baghdad and Basra and burned the protesters' tents, in a new attempt by the regime to end the peaceful protests by force.

Disregard and procrastination continue in dealing with the legitimate demands of the people. It is this stance which we have always warned against, and this is what has forced the protesters in recent days to take escalatory steps whilst maintaining a peaceful character.

The continuing acts of repression, intentional killings, assassinations, arrests, kidnappings, stifling and violating the freedom of expression will not help break the morale of the people and force them to return to their homes. Among recent victims of this campaign of repression was a Communist youth, the martyr Fahad al-Alyawi, who was treacherously killed yesterday on Muhammad al-Qasim Highway in Baghdad as he tried to reach his comrades who were protesting there, carrying food to them.

This is the solution, and the starting point on the path of salvation from another dark era which wasted 16 years of our peoples lives.

We glorify the martyrs, and wish speedy recovery for the wounded and injured, and freedom for the detainees."

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Iraqi Communist Party demands the ending of bloodshed, calls for early elections - In Defense of Communism

Reports of escalating persecution and a crackdown on religious believers in China have been filtering to the outside world for months. In recent years nearly 6,000 underground churches have been shut down by Communist authorities, some leveled to the ground, and pastors and church members arrested for crimes such as "inciting subversion of state power" and "illegal business operations."

For two years, Stephen (not his real name) attended one of those 6,000 now-shuttered underground churches. On the day authorities raided his church in 2018, he was flying back from an overseas trip so he was not there when his pastor and other church members were arrested. He told his story of harassment from authorities and efforts to flee to the Christian Post last week.

Before Stephen could get home, authorities came to his apartment and knocked on the door. Frightened, his wife locked the door and turned off the lights. Oddly, the police did not knock down the door. But when he next spoke with his wife by phone, he learned the electricity had been turned off and that there was no heat in the place in the middle of a freezing winter. He called the property manager who was able to turn the power back on for a short while. But it was soon shut off again and he was told he had to meet with authorities to get it turned back on. He went to the local police station expecting to be arrested and thrown in prison. He described the experience to the Post:

"I wore a very heavy jacket and heavy pants," he said. "I go there and told the police officer, 'Why you turn off the power? You can just call me. You have my phone number.' And he said, 'If we do not do that, you won't show up.'"

Stephen said he was ordered by a police officer to write his name and government identification number on a piece of paper in addition to the names and ID numbers of his wife and kids.

At that point, the police official introduced Stephen to three "community officials" who wanted to discuss issues related to the closure of the church and a school affiliated with the church that his children attended.

The officials offered his children free seats in a public school. Although some Chinese families desire the opportunity to send their children to a good public school, Stephen refused the offer.

"I said 'Oh, thank you so much. I know this is a very good opportunity but please give to other people,'" he recalled. "My wife and I are Christians. We want to educate our children with God's Word."

The officials didn't seem happy with his refusal and left the room.

He was then asked to sign a document saying he would no longer have any contact with church members. The document also contained a gag order, which would prohibit him from talking about church affairs or street preaching.

Stephen refused to sign, telling officials that "friends and family need our support."

"They were scared about why we visit each other. That's human beings doing natural things," Stephen told CP. "I want the freedom to visit my brothers and sisters. I want to contact them. So I could not sign."

Stephen then said something that is often heard in report after report of Christians facing persecution. "I understood they are doing their duties. They are under pressure," he added of the government officials. "As Christians, we pray for them. They have to do whatever they do to earn money. So they kind of surprisingly let me go home."

Stephen says to this day he doesn't know why officials didn't break down the door to his apartment that first day, or why he was let go after interrogation. He wanted to stay in China, but Christian leaders urged him to flee for fear authorities would again arrest him and force information from him about the church's ministry in order to build a stronger case against the church's pastor. He finally fled his home city, going from city to city for weeks, knowing police were monitoring his moves. A month later he and his family flew to America where they live with a relative.

As CBN News has reported, attacks against Christians and other religious groups have been increasing in China in recent years, including bulldozing churches and mosques, barring Tibetan children from Buddhist religious studies, and incarcerating more than a million members of Islamic ethnic minorities in what are termed "re-education centers."

One of the most obvious attacks on Christians happened last October when Chinese government authorities tore down a mega church's building in the Funan, Anhui region, starting the demolition while the congregation was still in the church worshipping. The church's pastors were arrested and detained, according to the international non-profit Christian human rights organization China Aid.

Government officials did not show any documents ordering the 3,000-seat church building's demolition. But they did produce arrest warrants for leaders Geng Yimin and Sun Yongyao. Both pastors were detained on the charge of suspicion of "gathering a crowd to disturb social order."

Despite all his smiles to the US and the West, President and Communist Party leader Xi Jinping is behind the increasing persecution in China, and has ordered that all religions must "Sinicize" to ensure they are loyal to the officially atheistic party. According to Open Doors 2020 Persecution Watch List, this means they must make beliefs, including Christianity, "fall in line with [the government's] interpretation of Communism...[and endure]a steady drip of pressure, where the government increases surveillance, control, and restrictions of believers."

China ranks as the 23rd worst persecutor of Christians in the world, moving up from 27th last year, according to that 2020 Persecution Watch List.

As he released their newest report last week, Open Doors CEO David Curry warned that China, with its "social scoring" system where people get points for "good" behavior, and lose points for not strictly adhering to the government line, and with its increased facial recognition capability, it is creating a "system of persecution for the future" and is the "greatest threat" to human rights in the world today, according to CP.

"I saw with my own eyes the surveillance on the street but also in the churches, watching their congregation," Curry said. "Facial scans when you come in and then tracking you and generating reports with assumptions built into their artificial intelligence system that is tracking Christian behavior."

Curry believes in the future China's system could be exported to other persecuting rulers around the world.

As for Stephen, after more than a year in America, he wants to go back home to China. But Christian leaders there say it's not advisable at this time. He continues to live in America where he and his family of six share a room in a sibling's home.

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Chinese Christian Tells of Increasing Persecution By Communist Government - CBN News

A walk-out at the Sinn Fin ardfheis became front-page news in 1970 with the emergence of republicans owing allegiance to a new IRA Provisional Council. The heated dispute at the partys conference involved the principle of parliamentary abstentionism: refusing to recognise the legitimacy of the partitionist parliaments in Leinster House and Stormont. Sinn Fin representatives, if elected as abstentionists, were not allowed to participate in them.

However, the underlying ideological tension at the January ardfheis hinged on the Cold War: Western freedom versus Soviet-style dictatorship. The Provisionals accused the leadership or junta of trying to turn Sinn Fin into another political party seeking votes at all costs under the direction of Moscow-led communists.

Even though the party had no TDs, or MPs, Sinn Fins publicly-aired divisions were significant because the IRA had split. The IRAs leadership stood accused of running its military capacity down to a point where it could not defend Belfast Catholics in August 1969. Sen Mac Stofin defined the Provisional IRAs mission: to remove the British presence in the North and establish the Irish Republic by force of arms.

The delegates who walked out of the ardfheis were angry with the party leadership for attempting to overturn its position on abstentionism. Adherents of the physical-force tradition were disturbed at the leaderships efforts to prioritise political struggle, thereby downplaying the IRAs role. They feared participation in a National Liberation Front would result in a communist takeover of the republican movement.

With Cathal Goulding and Sen Garland in the driving seat, the IRA leadership in the 1960s attempted to steer republicans away from the militarist focus on partition the Border in other words. As part of this reassessment Goulding enlisted intellectuals such as Roy Johnston, who had been a member of the communist party in Britain. Significantly, republican old faithfuls believed that his cohort were communists first and foremost.

Republicans took up issues such as housing and civil liberties. And the civil rights campaign initially proved to be spectacularly successful in drawing international attention to Northern Irelands inbuilt sectarianism. Many left-wing Sinn Fin activists, more than happy to work with young communists in the Connolly Youth Movement, for example, were glad to see the back of traditionalists at the ardfheis. But most Belfast republicans, according to Gerry Adams, had turned against the IRAs leaders following the August violence: they were out of touch with northern realities. Refused entry to the ardfheis in Dublin, Adams joined an anti-apartheid march instead.

The Provisionals soon made clear their hostility to Soviet-inspired communism. In February they launched their own publication, An Phoblacht, and listed the differences with the now-Official republican movement. These included recognising the Stormont, Dublin and Westminster parliaments; adopting socialism so extreme that it would result in dictatorship; and failing to provide the maximum possible defence for our people in the North.

An Phoblacht contended that before the split republican policymakers and masterminds included some who had joined from the communist party. Co-operating with communists in a National Liberation Front could only end in disaster: We know that in other countries that have come under the control of organisations similar to these radical groups totalitarian dictatorship has been the outcome. We have no reason to believe that the result would be any different in Ireland.

Traditionalist republicans perceived Marxist socialists promoting an alien ideology as having little in common with past revolutionary heroes. They did not see themselves as conservative on economic questions, but were suspicious of what they believed were political adventures and the then-fashionable language of world revolution. The first public opposition to the pre-split leadership had been expressed in July 1969 by a veteran Belfast republican, who claimed that one is now expected to be more conversant with the thoughts of Chairman Mao than those of our dead Patriots.

Traditionalist republicans found a platform in The Voice of the North, a paper bankrolled by a faction in the Fianna Fil government. Belfast Provisionals who served neither Queen nor Commisar spelled out the dangers of the alien ideology for Irish republicanism. The pre-split leadership, they stated, had attempted to replace the programme of Wolfe Tone and James Connolly with the foreign socialism of Marx and Mao. If this had gone unchecked, their argument went, the traditional IRA would have been replaced by the so-called National Liberation Movement, including Communist Party members.

At its first ardfheis, Provisional Sinn Fins president, Ruairi Brdaigh, said the party did not see a Marxist Socialist Republic as the solution to Irelands problems; it had rejected a takeover bid by extreme Marxist elements last January. Mac Stofin later spelled out the central difference between the two IRAs: The Officials say unless you have mass involvement of the people you havent got a revolution. We say, the armed struggle comes first and then you politicise. For Goulding, however, the republican movement had split over the communist issue.

Garland later addressed the allegation that left-wing republicanism constituted an alien ideology. Tone had been inspired by the French Revolution, he argued, and Irish revolutionaries should cherish internationalism. The cause of Ireland, as it were, was the cause of Vietnam, Palestine and South Africa: If it is alien to recognise the common humanity of working people struggling for freedom everywhere in the world, then call us alien and be damned.

The Official IRA had previously stated that it did not want to wage a military campaign against the British army at the expense of political struggle it declared a ceasefire in May 1972. Its republican detractors had been proved right.

However, from the late 1970s, the Provisional movement became increasingly influenced by Adams, who emphasised that armed struggle had to be complemented by political activity. When hunger striker Bobby Sands was elected to the British parliament in 1981, the Provisionals decided to contest elections in the North. Sinn Fin, now the only party claiming this title, won 10 per cent of the vote in the 1982 Assembly election. Ironically for Brdaigh he had been displaced by Adams as president the party reversed its position on abstentionism in 1986.

More irony followed when the Provisional IRAs military operations came to an end in 1997. Sinn Fin had a non-abstentionist TD elected the same year. And many more followed him. Its challenge is now to win enough Dil seats in order to be invited into a coalition government, while, simultaneously, participating in a Stormont executive. But one question remains. Does Sinn Fins focus on partition handicap it south of the border?John Mulqueen is the author of An Alien Ideology: Cold War Perceptions of the Irish Republican Left, published by Liverpool University Press

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We serve neither Queen nor Commisar: The birth of the Provisional IRA - Irish Times

The new Conservative MP for Totnes told colleagues in Parliament he is following in the footsteps of a mystic and a communist spy.

Anthony Mangnall won the Devon seat at the December General Election, defeating Sarah Wollaston who switched from the Tories to the Liberal Democrats, via the short-lived Change UK.

Mr Mangnall referred to his distant predecessors in his maiden speech in the House of Commons.

He revealed one constituent had decided to vote for him on the basis of whether he liked Marmite, and added: Given that one of my predecessors was a communist spy and another a mystic, I feel it is only acceptable for me to outline what sort of politician I might be.

The communist spy Mr Mangnall referred to in his speech was Ray Mawby, Conservative MP for Totnes from 1955 to 1983.

The BBC revealed in 2012 that Czech security service files showed Mr Mawby was in its pay for a decade.

The documents were handed to the BBC after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of Communism in eastern Europe

Local members of the Conservative Party expressed their surprise at the allegations against their former MP, who died in 1990.

The Czech papers revealed Mr Mawby was a gambler and began accepting loans while playing roulette and other games.

He later went on to accept payments, usually for 100 a time, for information and was given the codename Laval, it was reported.

Mr Mawby became assistant postmaster general and a junior minister in 1963.

His handler feared the promotion could end their arrangement as it meant a salary increase of 2,000 a year, yet Mr Mawby reportedly continued his meetings.

It was alleged he supplied spies with a floor plan of the Prime Ministers Commons office, lists of parliamentary committees, information about colleagues and a supposedly confidential parliamentary investigation into a Conservative peer.

The BBC said the file showed the relationship ending in November, 1971.

The mystic was Henry Vivian, who won the Totnes seat at the 1923 General Election, only to lose it to the next year the previous Tory MP Samuel Harvey.

Devon-born Vivian, a trade unionist and Liberal Party politician, was described as a practical mystic.

In another colourful political episode, a long-serving MP for the area stepped down after becoming involved in the MPs expenses scanda

Sir Anthony Steen represented the South Hams constituency, later renamed Totnes, from 1983 to 2010.

He decided to step down as MP for Totnes after the Daily Telegraph reported in 2009 he had claimed more than 87,000 in expenses at his constituency mansion, which was designated as his second home.

He told the BBC at the time that the claims were for maintenance to his home and garden.

He said the issue was of jealousy and he had done nothing wrong, but had discovered constituents were angry about it.

Sir Anthony told a BBC interviewer: "I think I behaved, if I may say so, impeccably. I've done nothing criminal, that's the most awful thing, and do you know what it's about? Jealousy.

I've got a very, very large house. Some people say it looks like Balmoral. It's the photographs, it looks like Balmoral, but it's a merchant's house of the 19th century. It's not particularly attractive, it just does me nicely it's got room to actually plant a few trees."

Sir Anthony blamed the Conservative Government for the Freedom of Information Act which led to the information being released, and said it had mucked up the parliamentary expenses system.

While an MP, he led work to raise awareness of human trafficking and modern slavery in the UK and across Europe. He carried on with the work after leaving Parliament and was knighted for his efforts in 2015.

Mr Mangnall told MPs in his speech he had been working with politicians for the last 12 years, including a campaign in 2012 which saw the creation of an initiative to prevent sexual violence in conflicts.

By 2014 more than 150 countries had signed up to a commitment to tackle the issue.

Last year he said he played a small role in helping to shut down the UKs domestic trade in ivory.

Mr Mangnall said hehad a background in the shipping industry which he said gave him experience of international trade.

He told MPs: Those of us who have the privilege to sit in this historic Chamber know that knocking on doors across constituencies enables us to see the very best of our communities and country, from the constituent who decided to vote for me depending on my like or dislike of Marmite, to the enthusiastic member of the public who greeted me and the Prime Minister as her little teddy bears - we have all been there.

This House now has the duty and expectation to restore our peoples faith in this Parliament, honour our promises, and tackle the burning issues of the day for the good of the country and to demonstrate our global ability.

The Totnes parliamentary constituency includes the towns of Totnes, Dartmouth and Kingsbridge, and stretches from Dartmoor to the south Devon coast betweenBanthamandBrixham.

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The 'mystic' and 'communist spy' who were Devon MPs - Devon Live